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Indian Literature

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  • Literature classified as
    • Fiction – Usually presented in Narrative Texts
    • Non-fiction – Usually presented in Didactic Texts
  • Other classifications
    • Prose
    • Poem
  • Indian Literature
    • Sanskrit
      1. Vedic Literature
        1. Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva
        2. Vedanga
        3. Brahmanas
        4. Aranyakas
        5. Upanishads or Vedanta
        6. Puranas
        7. Upa-Puranas
      2. Classical Sanskrit Literature
        1. Two Great Epics or Mahakavya
          1. Mahabharata
          2. Ramayana
        2. Sanskrit Drama
        3. Sanskrit Poetry
    • Sangam Literature
    • Other Dravidian Literature
    • Medieval Literature
    • Modern Literature

Literature in Ancient India

Vedas

  • Veda means knowledge
  • Knowledge to Conduct life
  • Poetic style
  • Full of symbols & Myths
  • Orally transmitted by Brahmins
  • Finally compiled in 3000 BC – 1000 BC
  • Considered as divine revelations
  • Treat entire universe as one big family = Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam
  • There are four Major Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva
  • Rug, Yajur, Sama – Traji
  • All emphasises on sacrifice
  • Brahmanas, Upanishads & Aranyakas accompany each Veda
  • Rig Veda
    • Oldest
    • Organised in 10 books called Mandalas
    • Each Mandalas has Suktas or hymns
    • Focuses on world prosperity & worldly beauty
    • Chief Deity = Indra
  • Atharva Veda
    • a.k.a Brahma Veda
    • Attributed to two rishis – Atharvah & Angira so a.k.a atharvangirasa
    • Focuses on peace and prosperity and all aspects of man’s daily life including treatment of several ailments
    • Two major recensions or sakhas
      • Paippalada
      • Saunakiya
    • Text also deals with black & white magic, speculation of changes in universe
  • Yajur Veda
    • Yajus means Sacrifice
    • A guide book for priests who conducts sacrifice & rituals
    • Two major recensions or samhita
      • Shukla – white / pure
      • Krishna – black / dark
  • Sama Veda
    • Saman means Melody or songs
    • Dues to lyrical nature of text it also called as book of chants
    • Contains Ragas(musical notes) & Raginis

Vedangas

  • To fully understand vedas, supplementary text like vedangas or branches / limbs of vedas are studied
  • There are 6 Vedangas
    • Siksha – education
    • Nirukta – etymology
    • Chhanda – metrics in sanskrit grammar
    • Jyotisha – astronomy
    • Vyakaran – Grammar
    • Kalpa – Rituals
  • Many treaties or rule book was created under these subjects
  • Panini’s Ashtadhyayi, a sanskrit grammar text is one such book

Brahmanas

  • Each veda has a Brahmana attached
  • It has commentaries to particular veda
  • Brahmana is a Hindu sruti (revealed knowledge) literature
VedaBrahmanas
Rig Veda1.Aitareya Brahmana
2.Kaushitaki Brahmana
Sama Veda1.Tandya Mahabrahmana
2.Sadvimsha Brahmana
Yajur Veda1.Taittiriya Brahmana
2.Shatpatha Brahmana
Atharva Veda1.Gopatha Brahmana
2.Jaimaniya Brahmana
3.Panchvish Brahmana

Arayankas

  • Taught by forest dwelling holy men called Munis
  • Compilation of Rituals and sacrifices involved in Vedas

Upanishads

  • a.k.a Vedanta = Veda + Anta because they are the end part of vedas
  • Upanishads means to “sit down near” (the teacher)
  • Orally transmitted in Guru-shishya parampara
  • Talks about ways of Moksha or Salvation
  • Out of 200 known upanishads, 108 Upanishads are called Muktika Canon = Important because 108 beads in Hindu Rosary or Mala
  • Difference b/w Upanishads & Arayankas
    • Upanishads – Jnana-kanda – Knowledge / spirituality section
    • Arayanka – Karma-kanda – Ritualistic actions / Sacrifice section

Mahabharata

  • Has several versions but popular version penned by Ved Vyas in Sanskrit
  • Initially 8,800 verses called as Jaya meaning Victory
  • Over a period many stories were added and verses increased to 24,000 and renamed as Bharata by vedic tribes
  • Current form contains 1,00,000 verses divided into 10 Parvas or chapters with insets called Itihas Purana or Mythical history
  • It also includes Bhgwata Gita didactical text of Hindus
    • Concise guide to Hindu Philosophical dilemmas & how to live a righteous life
    • Contains dialogue b/w Lord Krishna & Arjuna
    • Talks about Dharama and various kinds of Dharma
    • Suggests mankind to follow Nishkama Karma, i.e to perform one’s duty to the family and world in a selfless way
  • Story is based on conflict b/w Kauravas & Pandavas over throne of Hastinapur
  • Sutradhar or impresario is Lord Krishna

Ramayana

  • Penned by Valmiki, also called as Adikavi or 1st amongst the poets
  • So Ramayana is called Adikavya
  • Compiled around 1500 BC
  • Story is about Rama who is projected as ideal man for mankind
  • It teaches 4 fold objectives or Purshartha through Rama’s life
    • Dharma – Religion or Righteousness
    • Artha – (monetary) Achievements in the worldly sphere
    • Kama – Fulfilling worldly desires
    • Moksha – Liberation from these desires
  • It contains 24,000 verses divided into seven books called K(h)andas

Puranas

  • Talks about “that which renews the old”
  • Mythological narrative stories of creation of the universe till its destruction
    • Easy form of story-writing style made it popular among masses
    • Puranas use parables and fables
      • Parables – Stories in prose or verse teaching spiritual, moral or religious lessons featuring Human character
      • Fables – Stories in prose or verse teaching morals through pithy maxim or clear story featuring animals / inanimate objects / mythical creatures / plants. e.g include
        • Panchatantra by Vishnu Sharma
        • Hitopadesha by Narayan Pandit
  • Focuses on Hindu trimurti – trinity / three gods : Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh
  • 18 Major Puranas or Mahapuranas
    • Well known = Bhagavata, Brahma, Vayu, Agni, Garuda, Padma, Vishnu and Matsya

Upa-Puranas

  • Puranas became so popular that gave rise to sub-genre called Upa-Puranas or Minor Puranas
  • 19 Minor Puranas based on 5 Major Subjects dictated by Sanskrit lexicographer from Gupta Age Amaraimha
    • Sarga – The creation of Universe
    • Pratisarga – The periodic cycle of destruction and re-creation
    • Manvantra – The periodic cycle of Manu’s lifetime
    • Vamsa – Genealogies of solar and lunar dynasties of Gods and sages
    • Vamshanucharita – Dynastic histories of Kings

Classical Sanskrit Literature

  • Two great epics are precursor to Sanskrit Kavya (epic poetry), nataka (classical drama) & other treatises on medicine, statecraft, grammar(Panini’s ashtadhyayi), mathematics etc

Sanskrit Drama

  1. Kalidasa
    1. Malavikagnimitra ( Love story of Malavika & Agnimitra )
    2. Vikramorvasaiya ( Love Story of Vikram and Urvasi )
    3. Abhigyana Sahakuntala ( recognition of shakuntala)
  2. Sudraka
    1. Mrichhakatika (clay-cart) – Love affair of young brahmin charudatta with a courtesan
  3. Vishakhdutta
    1. Mudra Rakshasa – political drama narrates ascent of King Chandragupta Maurya to power
    2. Dev Chandra Gupta
  4. Bhavabhuti
    1. Uttara Ramacharitam – later life of Rama
  5. Bhasa
    1. Swapnavasavadatta – Vasavadatta in Dream

Sanskrit Poetry or Kavya

  • Poetry focuses on form, style, figure of speech unlike drama that focuses on story
  • Major Poets
    1. Kalidasa
      • Kumara Sambhava – birth of Kumar
      • Raghuvamsa – dynasty of Raghus
      • Meghaduta – cloud messenger
      • Ritusambara – medley of seasons
    2. Harisena
      • Poems praising valor of Samudra Gupta, so good later inscribed in Allahabad pillar
    3. Jayadeva
      • Gita Govinda – life of Lord Krishna & his love for Radha
    4. Bharavi
      • kiratarajuniyam – Kirat & Arjun
    5. Magha
      • Sishupalavadha – Killing of Shishupal
    6. Ashvagosha
      1. Saundarananda

Other Sanskrit texts

  1. Dharmasutras – Book of Law
  2. Dharamashastras = {Dharmasutras + Smiritis } – Law book governing most Hindu states
  3. Manusmriti – Law of Manu – defines role of men and women in society based on birth
  4. Arthashastra by kautilya / chanakya / vishnugupta – learnt scholar in court of Chandragupta Maurya
    1. Focus statecraft, military strategy and Kings duties
    2. Socio-economic condition of Mauryan Empire is also mentioned
  5. Buddhacharita by Ashvagosha – biography of Budhdha
    1. He also wrote famous poem called Saundarananda

Scientific Texts

  1. Charak – Charak Samhita (Book on Medicine)
  2. Sushruta – Sushruta Samhita (Book on Surgery)
  3. Madhava – Madhava Nidana (Book on Pathology)
  4. Varamihira
    1. Pancha-Siddhantika (Book on Astrology)
    2. Brihat Samhita (Book on wide ranging subjects like planetary movements, geology, architecture, etc
  5. Aryabhatta – Aryabhatiya (Book on astronomy and mathematics)
  6. Lagdhacharaya – Book on Astrology

Sanskrit literature in Medieval period

  • Not much, just few
    • Kashmir – Kalhan’s Rajatarangani – Detailed account of Kings in Kashmir
    • Rajasthan – Somadeva’s Katha-sarit-sagar – Poetic work

Literatures in Pali & Prakrit

  • Post vedic period Pali & Prakrit gained prominence
  • Pali is archaic form of Prakrit, while Prakrit is loosely attached to many language that is not Sanskrit
  • Many Buddhist & Jains literature were composed in this language
  • Even Lord Buddha used Pali to give his sermon

Buddhist Literature

  • Categorized as
    • Canonical
      • Tripitakas or baskets (of knowledge)
        • Vinaya Pitaka – Rules and regulations to be followed by Buddhist monks
        • Sutta Pitaka – Speeches of Buddha about morality and righteous dharma
        • Abhidamma Pitaka – Philosophy and metaphysics but also includes ethics, theory of knowledge and psychology
    • Non-Canonical
      • Jatakas
        • Compilation of stories of previous births of Buddha – It is believed Buddha passed through 550 births before being born as Gautama
        • Includes stories of Bodhi-sattva – person on path of becoming buddha
        • These tales combile popular tales + ancient mythology + socio-political conditions of North India
        • Also available in sanskrit and pali

Jain Literature

  • Important Jain Literature is mostly written Prakrit
    • Angas
    • Upangas
    • Parikramas
  • Other Prakrit texts
    • Chhedab Sutra
    • Malasutra
  • Sanskrit Literature is also available
    • Upamitibhava Prapancha Katha by Siddharasi
  • Secular text by Jain writers
    • Hemachandra – Treatise on lexicography & grammar
    • Hala
      • Gathasaptashati – Has some elements of Erotica
      • But most of the verses penned by Female poetesses including Pahai, Roha, Sasippaha, Mahavi and Reva

Dravidian Literature

  • Comprises of Literature in 4 Major Dravidian Language
    • Tamil – Possibly Oldest living Language
    • Kannada
    • Telugu – Largest no of Speakers among other Dravidian Language
    • Malayalam – Youngest Dravidian Language

Sangam (Tamil) Literature

  • Sangam means fraternity
  • Pandya Kingdom organised assemblies where poets and writers can assemble to compile 7 promote Tamil Literature
  • Collection of 2381 poems by 427 poets and 102 anonymous poets
  • Compiled during 300BC and 300AD – So this period is called Sangam Period
  • Two Major Schools
    • Aham/agam or inner field – concentrates on abstract human aspects of love, sexual relations
    • Puram or outerfield – discusses human experiences like social life, ethics, valour & customs…etc
  • 3 Major sangams were organised
SangamKingdomPlace of OrganisationChairmanBooks
1stPandyaMaduraiAgastyarNo book has survived
2ndPandyaKapatapuramInitially Agastyar, then his disciple Tolkapiyar took over2000 poems compiled into Tholkapiyam
3rdPandyaMaduraiNakkirarMost of the existing sangam Literature were written
  • Topics in Tamil Literature
    1. Eighteen Greater Texts or Patinenmel Kanakku Noolgal
      1. Eight Anthologies or Ettuthokai
        1. Ainkurunuru – ஐங்குறுநூறு –  Five hundred short poems
        2. Akanannuru – அகநானூறு – four hundred [poems] in the agam genre
        3. Purananuru – புறநானூறு – four hundred [poems] in the genre puram
        4. Kalithokai – கலித்தொகை – Kali-metre anthology
        5. Kurunthokai – குறுந்தொகை – Short-collection
        6. Natrinai – நற்றிணை – Excellent tinai
        7. Paripaadal – பரிபாடல் – Paripatal-metre anthology
        8. Pathitrupathu – பதிற்றுப் பத்து – Ten Tens
      2. Ten Idylls/ songs or Patthupaattu
        1. Thirumurugatrupadai – திருமுருகாற்றுப்படை – Guide to Lord Murugan
        2. Kurinjipaattu – குறிஞ்சிப்பாட்டு – the song of the mountain
        3. Malaipadukadam – மலைபடுகடாம் – the Echo of the Mountains
        4. Maduraikaanchi – மதுரைக் காஞ்சி
        5. Mullaipaattu – முல்லைப்பாட்டு – jungle song
        6. Nedunalvaadai – நெடுநல்வாடை – good long north wind or cold season
        7. Pattina Paalai – பட்டினப் பாலை – City and desert
        8. Perumbaanaatrupadai – பெரும்பாணாற்றுப்படை – guide for poet with the large lute
        9. Perunaaratrupadai – பொருநராற்றுப்படை – Guide for war poet / singer
        10. Sirubanaatrupadai – சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை – Guide for bards with the small lute
    2. Eighteen Lesser Texts or Patinenkil Kanakku noolgal
      1. Naaladiyaar – நாலடியார் – Four Feet – Composed by Jain Monks on Ethics & Morality
      2. Naanmanikadigai – நான்மணிக்கடிகை – Four Gemed Jewelry
      3. Inna Narpathu – இன்னா நாற்பது – 40 undesirables
      4. Iniyavai Narpathu – இனியவை நாற்பது – 40 desirables
      5. Kar Narpathu – கார் நாற்பது – 40 Rain
      6. Kalavazhi Narpathu – களவழி நாற்பது
      7. Ainthinai Aimpathu – ஐம்பது – 5 Landscapes in 50 poems
      8. Tinaimozhi Aimpatu – திணைமொழி ஐம்பது – Language of 5 Landscapes in 50 poems
      9. Aintinai Elupatu – ஐந்திணை எழுபது – 5 Landscapes in 70 poems
      10. Thinaimalai Nurru Aimpathu -திணைமாலை நூற்றைம்பது
      11. Thirukkural – திருக்குறள் – Sacred Verses
        1. By Thiruvalluvar on mainly ethics & morality
        2. 3 Parts
          1. Aram – Ethics
          2. Porul – Wealth
          3. Inbam – Love
      12. Thirikatukam – திரிகடுகம் – 3 Herbs
      13. Acharakkovai – ஆசாரக்கோவை – garland of right conduct
      14. Pazhamozhi Nanuru – பழமொழி நானூறு – 400 proverbs – Jain Author
      15. Siruppanchamulam – சிறுபஞ்சமூலம் – 5 Herbal Roots
      16. Muthumozhikkanchi – முதுமொழிக்காஞ்சி
      17. Elathi – ஏலாதி – 6 Herbs
      18. Kainnilai – கைநிலை & Innilai – இந்நிலை
    3. Other Sangam Texts
      1. Avvaiyar – Female saint created many literary works. e.g – aathichoodi
    4. Other literature post sangam period
      1. Two Great Epics
        1. Silappadhikaram by Ilango-Adigal – Story of an Anklet
        2. Manimekalai by Chattanar – Story of Manimekalai
      2. Bakti Movement
        1. Vaishnava Bhakti Saints
          1. Alvars – 12
            1. Andal is only female alvar saint
        2. Shaivism Bhakti Saints
          1. Nayanmars – 63
            1. Appar or Tirunavukkarayar
            2. Nandanar – Only Dalit Saint
            3. Kaaraikaal Ammaiyaar – Women Saint
            4. Sirunthodar – Army General of Pallava King Narasima Varman II
            5. Cheraman Perumal – Chera King Rama Rajasekhara
            6. Ninra Seer Nedumaaran – Pandya King
            7. Magayakarasiyaar – Queen & wife of Ninra Seer Nedumaaran
      3. Two major Secular Writing
        1. Periya Puranam
        2. Kambaramayanam
LandscapeEnglish traslationGodPeople
Mullai Forest
Kurinji Mountains
Marutham Farmland
Paalai Desert
Neithal Seashore

Malayalam Literature

  • Malayalam Originated in 11th Century, yet developed rich literature to call as independent literature
  • Works
    • Kokasandisan
    • Bhasa Kautilya – Commentary on Arthashastra

Telugu Literature

  • Vijayanagara Period – Golden Age of Telugu Literature
    • Uttaraharivamsam by Nachana Somanatha, court poet of Bukka I
    • Amukta Malyada by King Krishnadevaraya
  • Krishnadevaraya had 8 learned literary personages in his court or Ashtadiggajas
    1. Allasani Peddana or Andhra kavitapitamaha – Manucharitam
    2. Nandi Timmana – parijathapaharanam
    3. Tenali Ramakrishna – Panduranga Mahatmayam
    4. Ramrajabhushana or Bhattumurti
      1. Vasucharitram
      2. Narasabhupaliyam
      3. Harishchandra Nalopakhyanam
    5. Madayagari Mallana – Rajashekharacharitra
    6. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra
      • Ramabhyudayam
      • Akalkathasara

Kannada Literature

  • Ratnatraya or Three Gems – Most Important 3 great scholars
    1. Pampa – Father of Kannada, poet in court of Chalukya Arikesari
      • Adi Purana
      • Vikramarjiva Vijaya
    2. Ponna
      1. Shanti Purana
      2. Poet in court of Rashtrakuta king Krishna III
    3. Ranna
      1. Ajitanatha Purana
      2. Poet in court of Rashtrakuta king Krishna III
  • Many Jain scholars were the 1st to foray into Kannada Literature
    • Dharmanathapurana by madhava on Life of 15th tirthankara
    • DharamaParikshe by Uritta Vilasa
    • Kavirajamang by Rashtrakuta King Nriptunga Amoghavarsha I
  • Other major Kannada texts
    • Harishvara
      • Harishchandra Kavya
      • Somanatha Charita
    • Bandhuvarma
      • Harivamshabhyudaya
      • Jiva Sambodhana
    • Rudra Bhata
      • Jagannathavijaya
    • Andayya
      • Madana Vijaya or Kabbigara kava – 1st pure kannada text without sanskrit word
    • Keirja
      • Shabdamanidarpana
    • Mallikarjuna
      • Suktisudharnava
    • Narahari
      • Tarave Ramayana
    • Lakshamisha a.k.a Kamata-karicutavana-Chaitra
      • Jaimini Bharata
    • Tripadi
      • Sarvajna
    • Honnamma -1st poetess
      • Hadibadeya Dharma

Medieval Literature

  • Persian emerged as the language of Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Court
  • Hindi Developed from Apabhramsha

Persian Literature

  1. Amir Khusrau Dehlawi or Amir Khusrau of Delhi
    1. Diwan – a collection of poetry in Persian
    2. Nuh Sipihr
    3. Masnavi Duwal Rani Khizr Khan – a tragic love poem
  2. Zia-ud din Barani – top historian
    1. Tarikh-e-Firuz Shahi
  3. Minhaj-us-Siraj – another famous historian
  4. Ibn Batuta – Moroccan traveler
    1. Several accounts on the socio-political scenario of that period
  5. Babur
    1. Tuzuk-I-Babari, an autobiography in Turkish
  6. Jahangir
    1. Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri
  7. Gulbadan Begum, half-sister of Humayun
    1. Humayun-nama
  8. Akbar‘s Period
    1. Illiterate but ordered translation of Mahabarata(Razmnama), Ramayana, Bhagwat Gita and several Upanishads into Persian
    2. Literature reached its peak during his rule
      1. Highly illustrated work – Hamzanama = Mythical Persian Hero, Amir Hamza
      2. Malik Muhammad Jayasi – Padmavat
      3. Badauni wrote on ethics of political rule
      4. Faizi a master in Persian poetry
    3. Abul Fazl, historian in Akbar’s court
      1. Ain-e-Akbari
      2. Akbarnama
  9. Shah Jahan‘s period
    1. Shah Jhan-nama of Abdhul Hameed Lahori
  10. Aurangzeb’s period
    1. Tabqat-i-Alamgiri by Aurangzeb
    2. Kulliyat by Mir Jafar Zatalli

Urdu

  • Urdu developed through interaction of Hindi and Persian
  • Follows Hindi grammar & Persian script
  • Initially called as Dakkani(southern) because it is used in Bahamani state of Ahmedabad, Golconda, Bijapur & Berar
  • Poets
    • Mirza Ghalib – Diwan (collection of poetry)
    • Sauda
    • Dard
    • Mir Taqi Mir
    • Iqbal
      • Saare Jahan se achcha
      • Bang-i-Dara
  • Post-medieval period Bhadur Shah Zafar wrote in urdu & Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan wrote many nationalistic texts in urdu

Hindi & it Dialects

  • Hindi evolved in 7th & 14th century from Apabhramsa,which in turn evolved from Prakrit
  • Bhakti Movement gave big boost to Hindi as they shunned Sanskrit (Brahmin Monopoly) as common people didn’t use it.
  • 1st Hindi Book – Prithviraj Raso – Life of Prithvi Raj Chauhan
  • Many of Hindi literature by Bakti writers
    • Kabir – Dohas (couplet)
    • Tulsidas
      • Couplets in Braj & bit of Persian
      • Ramacharitmanas
    • Lord Krishna became focus for many writers
      • Surdas wrote Sur Sagar(Krishna’s infancy & his affairs with gopis)
      • Rahim, Bhusan & Raskhan also wrote about devotion to Krishna
      • Mirabai – women devotee
      • Biharis’ Satsai (700 verses)

Modern literature

Modern Hindi Literature

  • Modern Literature is called Adhunik Kaal & had 4 sub-section
    1. Bhartendu Yug – 1868 – 1893
    2. Dwivedi Yug – 1893 – 1918
    3. Chhayavad Yug – 1918 – 1937
    4. Contemporary Yug – 1937 onwards
  • Indian national movement gave zest to go back to classics and be inspired by Sanskrit
  • Writers
    • Mahadevi Verma (Padma Vibhushan recipient)
    • Harivansha Rai Bachchan wrote Madhushala
    • Bharatendu Harishchandra
      • Andheri Nagari (city of darkness)
      • Bharat Durdasha
    • Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi
    • Swami Dayanand – Satyartha Prakash
    • Munshi Prem Chand
    • Surya Kant Tripathi or Nirala
    • Maithili Sharan Gupt
    • Sumitranandan pant
    • Ramdhari Singh or Dinakar

Bengali, Odia and Assamese Literature

  • Indian national movement and print press called Baptist Mission Press by William Carey in 1800 gave rise wide distribution and development of Bengali Literature
  • Many ancient and medieval literatures like Mangal Kavyas widely published
  • Many nationalist writing became quite famous
    • Raja Ram Mohan Roy
    • Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
    • Akshay Kumar Dutta
    • Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
      • Anand Math – Vandem mataram is an excerpt from this novel
    • Rabindranath Tagore
      • Awarded Nobel Prize for Geetanjali in 1913
    • Sharat Chandra Chatterjee
    • Qazi Nazrul Islam
    • R. C Dutta
  • Assamese Literature
    • Dominated by Buranjis (court chronicles)
    • Shankerdev composed devotional poetry
    • Padmanaba Gohain Barua
    • Lakshmi nath Bezbarua
  • Odia Literature
    • Sarala Das
    • Upendra Bhanja
    • Radha Nath Ray
    • Fakirmohan Senapati

Gujarati, Rajasthani and Sindhi Literature

  • Bakti movement peaked in Gujarat which affected the literature
  • Narsinh Mehta – Devotional songs of Krishna
  • Narmad
  • Govardhan Ram – Saraswati Chandra
  • Dr. K.M Munshi – Prithvi Vallabha
  • Rajasthani Literature
    • Had several dialects and two forms
      • Dingal
      • Pingal
    • Dhola Maru
    • Mirabai’s writings in Braj is also famous
    • Mostly oral & works spread through Virkavya(victory poetic songs)
  • Sindhi Literature
    • Influenced by neighboring Rajasthan & Gujarat
    • 1st to come under Islamic settlers, which explains the influence of sufism & Islamic poetry
    • Dewan Kauramal
    • Mirza Kalish Beg

Kashmiri Literature

  • Medieval Period – Kalhan’s Rajatarangani in Sanskrit
  • During peak Bhakti movement
    • Lal Ded – 1st female poet & Shaivite mystic
  • After spread of Islam & Sufism
    • Sufi Ghulam Mohammad
    • Zinda Kaul
    • Mahjoor
    • Noor Din or Nand Rishi
  • After Dogra family’s ascent to power in 1846 Dogri language developed

Punjabi Literature

  • Due to geographical influence Punjabi has two scripts
    • Persian
    • Gurmukhi
  • Adikranth – Sikh religious text in Gurmukhi mostly
    • comprises of dohas of kabir, dadu and Nanak in Hindi or Braj
    • Guru Gobind Singh also contributed to it
      • also wrote Savaiyyas (Poetry)
  • Waris Shah
    • Epics like Sohni-Mahiwal, Sassi-Punnu & Heer(-Ranjha)
  • Sufi poetry by
    • Baba Farid
    • Bulley Shah
  • Nationalist writing
    • Bhagat Singh’s Rang de Basanti Chola
    • Bhai Vir Singh’s Rana Surat Singh

Marathi Literature

  • During Bakti movement
    • Saint Jnaneshwar
      • began Kirtan in MH
      • Commentary on Bhagavad Gita
    • Namdev
    • Sena
    • Gora
    • Janabai – Oldest know Female writer
    • Eknath
      • Commentary on Bhagwata Purana & Ramayana
    • Tukaram
    • Ramdas
  • Nationalist writers
    • Bal Gangadhar Tilak – Kesari in Marathi
  • Others
    • Hari Narayan Apte
    • V.S.Chiplunkar
    • Keshav Sut
    • M.G.Ranade
    • G.T.Madholkar
    • K.T.Telang