Under the Patronage by post Mauryan small dynasties like shakas, kushans, kanvas (north), satvahanas (south), Rashtrakutas (west) and various religious sects like Shaivites, vaishnavites, shaktites

Caves

• Two types of caves
  • Chaitya – prayer hall for monks
  • Vihar – rest place for Monks

Karle Chaitya (MH)

• Largest chaitya
• Huge lion pillar in front of chaitya
• Stupa is cylindrical
• Octagon shaped pillar behind stupa without decoration

Nasik Vihar (MH)

• a.k.a Pandavleni (but not related to Pandavas)
• Hinayana Buddhism
• group of 24 caves
• Only the 18th cave is a chaitya
• Has idols of buddha & bodhisattva

Stupas

• Enlarged stupas when compared to the Mauryan period
• Gateways(torans) are intricately decorated

Mauryan art is classified based on the initiative

It represented an important transition in Indian art from the use of wood and clay to stone

1. Court Art – State Initiative
   1. Pillars
   2. Stupas
2. Popular Art – Individual Initiative
   1. Caves
   2. Sculpture
   3. Pottery

Court Art

Pillars

• Capital crowned by Animal Figures – Bull, Lion & Elephant
• Different types of Abacus – Round, rectangular, square
• Abacus – Buddhists Edicts Inscribed in Abacus and sometimes in the shaft
• Capital Base – Bell or inverted lotus-shaped – Achaemenian/Persian/Iranian influence
• Shaft/Pillar – Highly Polished – Achaemenian/Persian/Iranian Influence
• Freestanding
• Monolithic
• Chunar(place in Bihar) sandstone

Purpose of Pillars

1. Symbol of State
2. To declare Victory
3. To spread moral ideas

Difference between Mauryan and Achaemanian Pillars

Imp Pillars

Sarnath Pillar – Lion Capital

• Emblem of GOI
• Four roaring Lion
• Abacus – Round + 4 dharma chakra or wheels of law + alternating with Elephant, Bull, Horse, Lion

Bull Capital – Rampura (Bihar)

• Mixture of Persian and Indian Elements
• Abacus – Non-Indian = motifs of rosette, palmette, acanthus ornaments

Stupas

• Structure covering the relics of Buddha and other Buddha related things
• Concept of stupa started during Vedic period
• After Buddha died 9 stupas were constructed – 8 over relics and 1 over the pot in which the relics where kept
• But during Ashoka’s time, the relics were dug out and further divided to construct new stupas
• Maximum stupas were constructed by Asoka – 84,000

Structure of Stupa

• Chhatri – 3 Chhatras – represents Triratna
  • Buddha – (enlightened)
  • Dharma – (doctrine)
  • Sangha – (order)
• Anda – hemispherical dome
• Vedika – Railings to pradhakshinapath
• Medhi – circular base with the enclosed walls or Vedika
  • For Circumambulation – Pradakshinapath
• Torana – Ornamental Gateway
• Sculptures engraved in Torana and Medhi
• Core of stupa – unburned bricks
• Outer surface – burnt bricks with lime plaster

Imp. Stupas

1. Bodhgaya Stupa (BH) – Buddha attained enlightenment
2. Sanchi Stupa (MP) – Depicts 4 events of Buddha – birth, enlightenment, Dharmachakrapravartana(1st sermon), Mahaparinirvan( nirvana after death ) – carving of shalabhanjika yakshi
3. Amravati Stupa (AP) – White Marble – Jataka Stories
4. Bharhut Stupa (MP) – carving of yaksha & yakshini
5. Nagarjunakonda Stupa (AP) – Buddha entering womb in the form of white elephant and his birth
6. Piprahawa Stupa (UP) – Oldest surviving stupa

Popular Art

Caves

• Begining of rock-cut architecture – other rock-cut architectures include temples, sculptures like Dhauli or elephant …etc
• Features
  • Polished interior of caves
  • Ornamental Gateways
• 7 sister Caves – earliest caves by Ashoka
  • Barabar Caves in Barabar Hills – 4 caves – older
    • karan Chaupar
    • Lomas Rishi
    • Sudama
    • Visva Zopri
  • Nagarajuni Caves – smaller and new
    • Gopi-ka-kuha
    • Vadhiti-ka-kuba
• Vapiya-ka-kubha

Common Features

1. Indigenous and Independent
2. Concentration on the utility factor over the artistic factor

Sites

1. Harappa
2. Mohenjodaro
3. Ropar
4. Kalibangan
5. Lothal
6. Rangpur

Town Planning

• Unity in diversity is the theme
• Cities are divided into (not all)
  • Citadels – for the ruling class
  • Lower Town – for ordinary people
• Variations of town planning in different sites due to geography
  • Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibanga – citadel fortified
  • Mohenjodaro – burnt bricks
  • kalibangan – mud bricks
  • Kotdiji & Amri – no fortification
  • Lothal – no division of the city
• Grid pattern – streets cut at the right angle
• Sanitation measures – houses connected t main drainage through small drains and drains covered by loose slabs to allow cleaning

Housing Pattern

• Baked Clay Bricks
• Fixed-size
• Use of stone and wood
• It included toilets, upper stories, a courtyard and well

Imp. Architectural Structures

• Great Bath – Mohenjadaro
  • stairs, changing rooms, waterproofing
• Granaries – Mohe & Harappa
  • air ducts, platform, in the citadel
• Dockyard – Lothal
  • lock-gate system for stable water level

Architecture is the process and product of designing, planning and constructing buildings.

Classification

Ancient India

1. Harappan – 2500 to 1800 BC
2. Mauryan – 300 to 400 BC
3. Post Mauryan
4. Gupta Age – 300 – 500 AD
   1. Nagara Style
      1. Odisha School
      2. Chandella / Khajuraho School
      3. Solanki / Maru Gurjar School
5. South Indian
   1. Dravida Style
      1. Pallava Style
      2. Chola Style
      3. Vijaya Nagara Style
      4. Nayaka Style
   2. Vesara Style
      1. Hoysala Style
      2. Pala Style

Medieval India

1. Delhi Sultanate
   1. Imperial Style
      1. Slave Dynasty
      2. Khalji
      3. Tughlaq
      4. Lodhi
   2. Provincial Style
      1. Jaunpur
      2. Malwa
      3. Bijapur
2. Mughal
   1. Babur
   2. Humayun
   3. Akbar
   4. Sahajahan
   5. Aurangzeb

Modern India

1. Indo-Gothic
2. Neo-Roman

• Literature classified as
  • Fiction – Usually presented in Narrative Texts
  • Non-fiction – Usually presented in Didactic Texts
• Other classifications
  • Prose
  • Poem
• Indian Literature
  • Sanskrit
    1. Vedic Literature
       1. Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva
       2. Vedanga
       3. Brahmanas
       4. Aranyakas
       5. Upanishads or Vedanta
       6. Puranas
       7. Upa-Puranas
    2. Classical Sanskrit Literature
       1. Two Great Epics or Mahakavya
          1. Mahabharata
          2. Ramayana
       2. Sanskrit Drama
       3. Sanskrit Poetry
  • Sangam Literature
  • Other Dravidian Literature
  • Medieval Literature
  • Modern Literature

Literature in Ancient India

Vedas

• Veda means knowledge
• Knowledge to Conduct life
• Poetic style
• Full of symbols & Myths
• Orally transmitted by Brahmins
• Finally compiled in 3000 BC – 1000 BC
• Considered as divine revelations
• Treat entire universe as one big family = Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam
• There are four Major Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva
• Rug, Yajur, Sama – Traji
• All emphasises on sacrifice
• Brahmanas, Upanishads & Aranyakas accompany each Veda
• Rig Veda
  • Oldest
  • Organised in 10 books called Mandalas
  • Each Mandalas has Suktas or hymns
  • Focuses on world prosperity & worldly beauty
  • Chief Deity = Indra
• Atharva Veda
  • a.k.a Brahma Veda
  • Attributed to two rishis – Atharvah & Angira so a.k.a atharvangirasa
  • Focuses on peace and prosperity and all aspects of man’s daily life including treatment of several ailments
  • Two major recensions or sakhas
    • Paippalada
    • Saunakiya
  • Text also deals with black & white magic, speculation of changes in universe
• Yajur Veda
  • Yajus means Sacrifice
  • A guide book for priests who conducts sacrifice & rituals
  • Two major recensions or samhita
    • Shukla – white / pure
    • Krishna – black / dark
• Sama Veda
  • Saman means Melody or songs
  • Dues to lyrical nature of text it also called as book of chants
  • Contains Ragas(musical notes) & Raginis

Vedangas

• To fully understand vedas, supplementary text like vedangas or branches / limbs of vedas are studied
• There are 6 Vedangas
  • Siksha – education
  • Nirukta – etymology
  • Chhanda – metrics in sanskrit grammar
  • Jyotisha – astronomy
  • Vyakaran – Grammar
  • Kalpa – Rituals
• Many treaties or rule book was created under these subjects
• Panini’s Ashtadhyayi, a sanskrit grammar text is one such book

Brahmanas

• Each veda has a Brahmana attached
• It has commentaries to particular veda
• Brahmana is a Hindu sruti (revealed knowledge) literature

Arayankas

• Taught by forest dwelling holy men called Munis
• Compilation of Rituals and sacrifices involved in Vedas

Upanishads

• a.k.a Vedanta = Veda + Anta because they are the end part of vedas
• Upanishads means to “sit down near” (the teacher)
• Orally transmitted in Guru-shishya parampara
• Talks about ways of Moksha or Salvation
• Out of 200 known upanishads, 108 Upanishads are called Muktika Canon = Important because 108 beads in Hindu Rosary or Mala
• Difference b/w Upanishads & Arayankas
  • Upanishads – Jnana-kanda – Knowledge / spirituality section
  • Arayanka – Karma-kanda – Ritualistic actions / Sacrifice section

Mahabharata

• Has several versions but popular version penned by Ved Vyas in Sanskrit
• Initially 8,800 verses called as Jaya meaning Victory
• Over a period many stories were added and verses increased to 24,000 and renamed as Bharata by vedic tribes
• Current form contains 1,00,000 verses divided into 10 Parvas or chapters with insets called Itihas Purana or Mythical history
• It also includes Bhgwata Gita didactical text of Hindus
  • Concise guide to Hindu Philosophical dilemmas & how to live a righteous life
  • Contains dialogue b/w Lord Krishna & Arjuna
  • Talks about Dharama and various kinds of Dharma
  • Suggests mankind to follow Nishkama Karma, i.e to perform one’s duty to the family and world in a selfless way
• Story is based on conflict b/w Kauravas & Pandavas over throne of Hastinapur
• Sutradhar or impresario is Lord Krishna

Ramayana

• Penned by Valmiki, also called as Adikavi or 1st amongst the poets
• So Ramayana is called Adikavya
• Compiled around 1500 BC
• Story is about Rama who is projected as ideal man for mankind
• It teaches 4 fold objectives or Purshartha through Rama’s life
  • Dharma – Religion or Righteousness
  • Artha – (monetary) Achievements in the worldly sphere
  • Kama – Fulfilling worldly desires
  • Moksha – Liberation from these desires
• It contains 24,000 verses divided into seven books called K(h)andas

Puranas

• Talks about “that which renews the old”
• Mythological narrative stories of creation of the universe till its destruction
  • Easy form of story-writing style made it popular among masses
  • Puranas use parables and fables
    • Parables – Stories in prose or verse teaching spiritual, moral or religious lessons featuring Human character
    • Fables – Stories in prose or verse teaching morals through pithy maxim or clear story featuring animals / inanimate objects / mythical creatures / plants. e.g include
      • Panchatantra by Vishnu Sharma
      • Hitopadesha by Narayan Pandit
• Focuses on Hindu trimurti – trinity / three gods : Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh
• 18 Major Puranas or Mahapuranas
  • Well known = Bhagavata, Brahma, Vayu, Agni, Garuda, Padma, Vishnu and Matsya

Upa-Puranas

• Puranas became so popular that gave rise to sub-genre called Upa-Puranas or Minor Puranas
• 19 Minor Puranas based on 5 Major Subjects dictated by Sanskrit lexicographer from Gupta Age Amaraimha
  • Sarga – The creation of Universe
  • Pratisarga – The periodic cycle of destruction and re-creation
  • Manvantra – The periodic cycle of Manu’s lifetime
  • Vamsa – Genealogies of solar and lunar dynasties of Gods and sages
  • Vamshanucharita – Dynastic histories of Kings

Classical Sanskrit Literature

• Two great epics are precursor to Sanskrit Kavya (epic poetry), nataka (classical drama) & other treatises on medicine, statecraft, grammar(Panini’s ashtadhyayi), mathematics etc

Sanskrit Drama

1. Kalidasa
   1. Malavikagnimitra ( Love story of Malavika & Agnimitra )
   2. Vikramorvasaiya ( Love Story of Vikram and Urvasi )
   3. Abhigyana Sahakuntala ( recognition of shakuntala)
2. Sudraka
   1. Mrichhakatika (clay-cart) – Love affair of young brahmin charudatta with a courtesan
3. Vishakhdutta
   1. Mudra Rakshasa – political drama narrates ascent of King Chandragupta Maurya to power
   2. Dev Chandra Gupta
4. Bhavabhuti
   1. Uttara Ramacharitam – later life of Rama
5. Bhasa
   1. Swapnavasavadatta – Vasavadatta in Dream

Sanskrit Poetry or Kavya

• Poetry focuses on form, style, figure of speech unlike drama that focuses on story
• Major Poets
  1. Kalidasa
     • Kumara Sambhava – birth of Kumar
     • Raghuvamsa – dynasty of Raghus
     • Meghaduta – cloud messenger
     • Ritusambara – medley of seasons
  2. Harisena
     • Poems praising valor of Samudra Gupta, so good later inscribed in Allahabad pillar
  3. Jayadeva
     • Gita Govinda – life of Lord Krishna & his love for Radha
  4. Bharavi
     • kiratarajuniyam – Kirat & Arjun
  5. Magha
     • Sishupalavadha – Killing of Shishupal
  6. Ashvagosha
     1. Saundarananda

Other Sanskrit texts

1. Dharmasutras – Book of Law
2. Dharamashastras = {Dharmasutras + Smiritis } – Law book governing most Hindu states
3. Manusmriti – Law of Manu – defines role of men and women in society based on birth
4. Arthashastra by kautilya / chanakya / vishnugupta – learnt scholar in court of Chandragupta Maurya
   1. Focus statecraft, military strategy and Kings duties
   2. Socio-economic condition of Mauryan Empire is also mentioned
5. Buddhacharita by Ashvagosha – biography of Budhdha
   1. He also wrote famous poem called Saundarananda

Scientific Texts

1. Charak – Charak Samhita (Book on Medicine)
2. Sushruta – Sushruta Samhita (Book on Surgery)
3. Madhava – Madhava Nidana (Book on Pathology)
4. Varamihira
   1. Pancha-Siddhantika (Book on Astrology)
   2. Brihat Samhita (Book on wide ranging subjects like planetary movements, geology, architecture, etc
5. Aryabhatta – Aryabhatiya (Book on astronomy and mathematics)
6. Lagdhacharaya – Book on Astrology

Sanskrit literature in Medieval period

• Not much, just few
  • Kashmir – Kalhan’s Rajatarangani – Detailed account of Kings in Kashmir
  • Rajasthan – Somadeva’s Katha-sarit-sagar – Poetic work

Literatures in Pali & Prakrit

• Post vedic period Pali & Prakrit gained prominence
• Pali is archaic form of Prakrit, while Prakrit is loosely attached to many language that is not Sanskrit
• Many Buddhist & Jains literature were composed in this language
• Even Lord Buddha used Pali to give his sermon

Buddhist Literature

• Categorized as
  • Canonical
    • Tripitakas or baskets (of knowledge)
      • Vinaya Pitaka – Rules and regulations to be followed by Buddhist monks
      • Sutta Pitaka – Speeches of Buddha about morality and righteous dharma
      • Abhidamma Pitaka – Philosophy and metaphysics but also includes ethics, theory of knowledge and psychology
  • Non-Canonical
    • Jatakas
      • Compilation of stories of previous births of Buddha – It is believed Buddha passed through 550 births before being born as Gautama
      • Includes stories of Bodhi-sattva – person on path of becoming buddha
      • These tales combile popular tales + ancient mythology + socio-political conditions of North India
      • Also available in sanskrit and pali

Jain Literature

• Important Jain Literature is mostly written Prakrit
  • Angas
  • Upangas
  • Parikramas
• Other Prakrit texts
  • Chhedab Sutra
  • Malasutra
• Sanskrit Literature is also available
  • Upamitibhava Prapancha Katha by Siddharasi
• Secular text by Jain writers
  • Hemachandra – Treatise on lexicography & grammar
  • Hala
    • Gathasaptashati – Has some elements of Erotica
    • But most of the verses penned by Female poetesses including Pahai, Roha, Sasippaha, Mahavi and Reva

Dravidian Literature

• Comprises of Literature in 4 Major Dravidian Language
  • Tamil – Possibly Oldest living Language
  • Kannada
  • Telugu – Largest no of Speakers among other Dravidian Language
  • Malayalam – Youngest Dravidian Language

Sangam (Tamil) Literature

• Sangam means fraternity
• Pandya Kingdom organised assemblies where poets and writers can assemble to compile 7 promote Tamil Literature
• Collection of 2381 poems by 427 poets and 102 anonymous poets
• Compiled during 300BC and 300AD – So this period is called Sangam Period
• Two Major Schools
  • Aham/agam or inner field – concentrates on abstract human aspects of love, sexual relations
  • Puram or outerfield – discusses human experiences like social life, ethics, valour & customs…etc
• 3 Major sangams were organised

• Topics in Tamil Literature
  1. Eighteen Greater Texts or Patinenmel Kanakku Noolgal
     1. Eight Anthologies or Ettuthokai
        1. Ainkurunuru – ஐங்குறுநூறு –  Five hundred short poems
        2. Akanannuru – அகநானூறு – four hundred [poems] in the agam genre
        3. Purananuru – புறநானூறு – four hundred [poems] in the genre puram
        4. Kalithokai – கலித்தொகை – Kali-metre anthology
        5. Kurunthokai – குறுந்தொகை – Short-collection
        6. Natrinai – நற்றிணை – Excellent tinai
        7. Paripaadal – பரிபாடல் – Paripatal-metre anthology
        8. Pathitrupathu – பதிற்றுப் பத்து – Ten Tens
     2. Ten Idylls/ songs or Patthupaattu
        1. Thirumurugatrupadai – திருமுருகாற்றுப்படை – Guide to Lord Murugan
        2. Kurinjipaattu – குறிஞ்சிப்பாட்டு – the song of the mountain
        3. Malaipadukadam – மலைபடுகடாம் – the Echo of the Mountains
        4. Maduraikaanchi – மதுரைக் காஞ்சி
        5. Mullaipaattu – முல்லைப்பாட்டு – jungle song
        6. Nedunalvaadai – நெடுநல்வாடை – good long north wind or cold season
        7. Pattina Paalai – பட்டினப் பாலை – City and desert
        8. Perumbaanaatrupadai – பெரும்பாணாற்றுப்படை – guide for poet with the large lute
        9. Perunaaratrupadai – பொருநராற்றுப்படை – Guide for war poet / singer
        10. Sirubanaatrupadai – சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை – Guide for bards with the small lute
  2. Eighteen Lesser Texts or Patinenkil Kanakku noolgal
     1. Naaladiyaar – நாலடியார் – Four Feet – Composed by Jain Monks on Ethics & Morality
     2. Naanmanikadigai – நான்மணிக்கடிகை – Four Gemed Jewelry
     3. Inna Narpathu – இன்னா நாற்பது – 40 undesirables
     4. Iniyavai Narpathu – இனியவை நாற்பது – 40 desirables
     5. Kar Narpathu – கார் நாற்பது – 40 Rain
     6. Kalavazhi Narpathu – களவழி நாற்பது
     7. Ainthinai Aimpathu – ஐம்பது – 5 Landscapes in 50 poems
     8. Tinaimozhi Aimpatu – திணைமொழி ஐம்பது – Language of 5 Landscapes in 50 poems
     9. Aintinai Elupatu – ஐந்திணை எழுபது – 5 Landscapes in 70 poems
     10. Thinaimalai Nurru Aimpathu -திணைமாலை நூற்றைம்பது
     11. Thirukkural – திருக்குறள் – Sacred Verses
         1. By Thiruvalluvar on mainly ethics & morality
         2. 3 Parts
            1. Aram – Ethics
            2. Porul – Wealth
            3. Inbam – Love
     12. Thirikatukam – திரிகடுகம் – 3 Herbs
     13. Acharakkovai – ஆசாரக்கோவை – garland of right conduct
     14. Pazhamozhi Nanuru – பழமொழி நானூறு – 400 proverbs – Jain Author
     15. Siruppanchamulam – சிறுபஞ்சமூலம் – 5 Herbal Roots
     16. Muthumozhikkanchi – முதுமொழிக்காஞ்சி
     17. Elathi – ஏலாதி – 6 Herbs
     18. Kainnilai – கைநிலை & Innilai – இந்நிலை
  3. Other Sangam Texts
     1. Avvaiyar – Female saint created many literary works. e.g – aathichoodi
  4. Other literature post sangam period
     1. Two Great Epics
        1. Silappadhikaram by Ilango-Adigal – Story of an Anklet
        2. Manimekalai by Chattanar – Story of Manimekalai
     2. Bakti Movement
        1. Vaishnava Bhakti Saints
           1. Alvars – 12
              1. Andal is only female alvar saint
        2. Shaivism Bhakti Saints
           1. Nayanmars – 63
              1. Appar or Tirunavukkarayar
              2. Nandanar – Only Dalit Saint
              3. Kaaraikaal Ammaiyaar – Women Saint
              4. Sirunthodar – Army General of Pallava King Narasima Varman II
              5. Cheraman Perumal – Chera King Rama Rajasekhara
              6. Ninra Seer Nedumaaran – Pandya King
              7. Magayakarasiyaar – Queen & wife of Ninra Seer Nedumaaran
     3. Two major Secular Writing
        1. Periya Puranam
        2. Kambaramayanam

Malayalam Literature

• Malayalam Originated in 11th Century, yet developed rich literature to call as independent literature
• Works
  • Kokasandisan
  • Bhasa Kautilya – Commentary on Arthashastra

Telugu Literature

• Vijayanagara Period – Golden Age of Telugu Literature
  • Uttaraharivamsam by Nachana Somanatha, court poet of Bukka I
  • Amukta Malyada by King Krishnadevaraya
• Krishnadevaraya had 8 learned literary personages in his court or Ashtadiggajas
  1. Allasani Peddana or Andhra kavitapitamaha – Manucharitam
  2. Nandi Timmana – parijathapaharanam
  3. Tenali Ramakrishna – Panduranga Mahatmayam
  4. Ramrajabhushana or Bhattumurti
     1. Vasucharitram
     2. Narasabhupaliyam
     3. Harishchandra Nalopakhyanam
  5. Madayagari Mallana – Rajashekharacharitra
  6. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra
     • Ramabhyudayam
     • Akalkathasara

Kannada Literature

• Ratnatraya or Three Gems – Most Important 3 great scholars
  1. Pampa – Father of Kannada, poet in court of Chalukya Arikesari
     • Adi Purana
     • Vikramarjiva Vijaya
  2. Ponna
     1. Shanti Purana
     2. Poet in court of Rashtrakuta king Krishna III
  3. Ranna
     1. Ajitanatha Purana
     2. Poet in court of Rashtrakuta king Krishna III
• Many Jain scholars were the 1st to foray into Kannada Literature
  • Dharmanathapurana by madhava on Life of 15th tirthankara
  • DharamaParikshe by Uritta Vilasa
  • Kavirajamang by Rashtrakuta King Nriptunga Amoghavarsha I
• Other major Kannada texts
  • Harishvara
    • Harishchandra Kavya
    • Somanatha Charita
  • Bandhuvarma
    • Harivamshabhyudaya
    • Jiva Sambodhana
  • Rudra Bhata
    • Jagannathavijaya
  • Andayya
    • Madana Vijaya or Kabbigara kava – 1st pure kannada text without sanskrit word
  • Keirja
    • Shabdamanidarpana
  • Mallikarjuna
    • Suktisudharnava
  • Narahari
    • Tarave Ramayana
  • Lakshamisha a.k.a Kamata-karicutavana-Chaitra
    • Jaimini Bharata
  • Tripadi
    • Sarvajna
  • Honnamma -1st poetess
    • Hadibadeya Dharma

Medieval Literature

• Persian emerged as the language of Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Court
• Hindi Developed from Apabhramsha

Persian Literature

1. Amir Khusrau Dehlawi or Amir Khusrau of Delhi
   1. Diwan – a collection of poetry in Persian
   2. Nuh Sipihr
   3. Masnavi Duwal Rani Khizr Khan – a tragic love poem
2. Zia-ud din Barani – top historian
   1. Tarikh-e-Firuz Shahi
3. Minhaj-us-Siraj – another famous historian
4. Ibn Batuta – Moroccan traveler
   1. Several accounts on the socio-political scenario of that period
5. Babur
   1. Tuzuk-I-Babari, an autobiography in Turkish
6. Jahangir
   1. Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri
7. Gulbadan Begum, half-sister of Humayun
   1. Humayun-nama
8. Akbar‘s Period
   1. Illiterate but ordered translation of Mahabarata(Razmnama), Ramayana, Bhagwat Gita and several Upanishads into Persian
   2. Literature reached its peak during his rule
      1. Highly illustrated work – Hamzanama = Mythical Persian Hero, Amir Hamza
      2. Malik Muhammad Jayasi – Padmavat
      3. Badauni wrote on ethics of political rule
      4. Faizi a master in Persian poetry
   3. Abul Fazl, historian in Akbar’s court
      1. Ain-e-Akbari
      2. Akbarnama
9. Shah Jahan‘s period
   1. Shah Jhan-nama of Abdhul Hameed Lahori
10. Aurangzeb’s period
    1. Tabqat-i-Alamgiri by Aurangzeb
    2. Kulliyat by Mir Jafar Zatalli

Urdu

• Urdu developed through interaction of Hindi and Persian
• Follows Hindi grammar & Persian script
• Initially called as Dakkani(southern) because it is used in Bahamani state of Ahmedabad, Golconda, Bijapur & Berar
• Poets
  • Mirza Ghalib – Diwan (collection of poetry)
  • Sauda
  • Dard
  • Mir Taqi Mir
  • Iqbal
    • Saare Jahan se achcha
    • Bang-i-Dara
• Post-medieval period Bhadur Shah Zafar wrote in urdu & Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan wrote many nationalistic texts in urdu

Hindi & it Dialects

• Hindi evolved in 7th & 14th century from Apabhramsa,which in turn evolved from Prakrit
• Bhakti Movement gave big boost to Hindi as they shunned Sanskrit (Brahmin Monopoly) as common people didn’t use it.
• 1st Hindi Book – Prithviraj Raso – Life of Prithvi Raj Chauhan
• Many of Hindi literature by Bakti writers
  • Kabir – Dohas (couplet)
  • Tulsidas
    • Couplets in Braj & bit of Persian
    • Ramacharitmanas
  • Lord Krishna became focus for many writers
    • Surdas wrote Sur Sagar(Krishna’s infancy & his affairs with gopis)
    • Rahim, Bhusan & Raskhan also wrote about devotion to Krishna
    • Mirabai – women devotee
    • Biharis’ Satsai (700 verses)

Modern literature

Modern Hindi Literature

• Modern Literature is called Adhunik Kaal & had 4 sub-section
  1. Bhartendu Yug – 1868 – 1893
  2. Dwivedi Yug – 1893 – 1918
  3. Chhayavad Yug – 1918 – 1937
  4. Contemporary Yug – 1937 onwards
• Indian national movement gave zest to go back to classics and be inspired by Sanskrit
• Writers
  • Mahadevi Verma (Padma Vibhushan recipient)
  • Harivansha Rai Bachchan wrote Madhushala
  • Bharatendu Harishchandra
    • Andheri Nagari (city of darkness)
    • Bharat Durdasha
  • Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi
  • Swami Dayanand – Satyartha Prakash
  • Munshi Prem Chand
  • Surya Kant Tripathi or Nirala
  • Maithili Sharan Gupt
  • Sumitranandan pant
  • Ramdhari Singh or Dinakar

Bengali, Odia and Assamese Literature

• Indian national movement and print press called Baptist Mission Press by William Carey in 1800 gave rise wide distribution and development of Bengali Literature
• Many ancient and medieval literatures like Mangal Kavyas widely published
• Many nationalist writing became quite famous
  • Raja Ram Mohan Roy
  • Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
  • Akshay Kumar Dutta
  • Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
    • Anand Math – Vandem mataram is an excerpt from this novel
  • Rabindranath Tagore
    • Awarded Nobel Prize for Geetanjali in 1913
  • Sharat Chandra Chatterjee
  • Qazi Nazrul Islam
  • R. C Dutta
• Assamese Literature
  • Dominated by Buranjis (court chronicles)
  • Shankerdev composed devotional poetry
  • Padmanaba Gohain Barua
  • Lakshmi nath Bezbarua
• Odia Literature
  • Sarala Das
  • Upendra Bhanja
  • Radha Nath Ray
  • Fakirmohan Senapati

Gujarati, Rajasthani and Sindhi Literature

• Bakti movement peaked in Gujarat which affected the literature
• Narsinh Mehta – Devotional songs of Krishna
• Narmad
• Govardhan Ram – Saraswati Chandra
• Dr. K.M Munshi – Prithvi Vallabha
• Rajasthani Literature
  • Had several dialects and two forms
    • Dingal
    • Pingal
  • Dhola Maru
  • Mirabai’s writings in Braj is also famous
  • Mostly oral & works spread through Virkavya(victory poetic songs)
• Sindhi Literature
  • Influenced by neighboring Rajasthan & Gujarat
  • 1st to come under Islamic settlers, which explains the influence of sufism & Islamic poetry
  • Dewan Kauramal
  • Mirza Kalish Beg

Kashmiri Literature

• Medieval Period – Kalhan’s Rajatarangani in Sanskrit
• During peak Bhakti movement
  • Lal Ded – 1st female poet & Shaivite mystic
• After spread of Islam & Sufism
  • Sufi Ghulam Mohammad
  • Zinda Kaul
  • Mahjoor
  • Noor Din or Nand Rishi
• After Dogra family’s ascent to power in 1846 Dogri language developed

Punjabi Literature

• Due to geographical influence Punjabi has two scripts
  • Persian
  • Gurmukhi
• Adikranth – Sikh religious text in Gurmukhi mostly
  • comprises of dohas of kabir, dadu and Nanak in Hindi or Braj
  • Guru Gobind Singh also contributed to it
    • also wrote Savaiyyas (Poetry)
• Waris Shah
  • Epics like Sohni-Mahiwal, Sassi-Punnu & Heer(-Ranjha)
• Sufi poetry by
  • Baba Farid
  • Bulley Shah
• Nationalist writing
  • Bhagat Singh’s Rang de Basanti Chola
  • Bhai Vir Singh’s Rana Surat Singh

Marathi Literature

• During Bakti movement
  • Saint Jnaneshwar
    • began Kirtan in MH
    • Commentary on Bhagavad Gita
  • Namdev
  • Sena
  • Gora
  • Janabai – Oldest know Female writer
  • Eknath
    • Commentary on Bhagwata Purana & Ramayana
  • Tukaram
  • Ramdas
• Nationalist writers
  • Bal Gangadhar Tilak – Kesari in Marathi
• Others
  • Hari Narayan Apte
  • V.S.Chiplunkar
  • Keshav Sut
  • M.G.Ranade
  • G.T.Madholkar
  • K.T.Telang

The market for laptops is vast and constantly evolving, making it challenging to choose the right one for your needs. Whether you’re looking for a laptop for personal use, work, gaming, or any other purpose, choosing the right one is critical for maximizing your investment and ensuring that you get the best possible experience. This blog post is designed to help you navigate the world of laptops and make an informed decision by providing a comprehensive guide on how to choose the right laptop for all your needs. We will cover the key factors to consider including budget, performance, display, and portability, as well as provide expert recommendations to help you make the best choice for your situation. By the end of this blog post, you will have all the information you need to find the perfect laptop and get the most out of your investment.

Determine Your Needs

1. The first step in choosing the right laptop is to determine your needs and the purpose of the laptop.
2. Will you be using it for personal use, work, gaming, or something else entirely? This will help you narrow down your options and determine which features are most important to you.
3. Your budget is also a crucial factor to consider when choosing a laptop. Laptops can range in price from a few hundred to several thousand dollars, so it’s important to set a budget and stick to it to avoid overspending.
4. Once you have determined your purpose and budget, the next step is to consider the key features you will need. These can include the processor, memory, storage, display, graphic card and more.
5. To help you determine your needs, make a list of the tasks you will be performing on your laptop, such as browsing the web, running multiple programs, playing games, and others. This will give you a better understanding of the specifications and features you will need.
6. Recommendations
   • If the needs are basic like checking mail, watching movies, reading PDFs, and using Microsoft word, PowerPoint and Excel sheets for routine office work or school work then – a $300 plus entry-level laptop with a minimum of 8GB Ram and the latest gen i3 processor and 256 GB Nvme SSD will do. Please avoid Pentium, atom-based laptops and also any laptop below 8GB Ram and using HDD or Sata or M.2 SSD.
   • If you feel you want more speed for the same mentioned purpose and have no budget limitations then any $400 plus the latest gen i5 processor will do.
   • If the purpose is to use complex programmes and play games then the latest gen i7 or i9 processor with at least 16GB Ram and 1TB Nvme SSD is needed.

Processor

1. The processor is the heart of a laptop and is responsible for performing computations and running applications.
2. There are two main types of processors: Intel and AMD. Both offer a range of processors, with varying speeds and a number of cores. Right now in 2023, I suggest 12th gen or 13th gen Intel processors over the Ryzen processor.
3. Processor speed is measured in GHz (gigahertz) and refers to how many cycles per second a processor can perform. A higher GHz means better performance and faster processing.
4. The number of cores a processor has refers to how many independent units it has for processing data. More cores can lead to better performance, especially for tasks that require multi-tasking or running multiple applications at once.
5. When choosing a laptop for work, a high-performance processor with a high GHz and multiple cores is important to ensure that you can run demanding programs and applications efficiently.
6. For gaming, a high-performance processor with a high GHz and multiple cores is also important for a smooth gaming experience.
7. For general use, a processor with a moderate GHz and a few cores is sufficient.
8. Keep in mind that a higher-end processor will increase the cost of your laptop, so it’s important to balance performance with your budget and needs.
9. Recommendation
   • Go for the latest generation processor that you can afford – for example choose 13th gen over 12th gen
   • Go for the fastest tier processor that you can afford – for example, choose i5 over i3 or Ryzen 5 over Ryzen 3
   • Keep in mind that $200 13th gen i3 may be more powerful than $1000 10th gen i9. Hence most of the time latest gen from the lower tier is better than the older-gen higher tier processor
   • Also, newer software may not be compatible with older processors. For example, Windows 11 is not supported on processors that are older than 10th-generation Intel.

Memory

1. Memory, also known as RAM (Random Access Memory), refers to the temporary storage of data in a computer.
2. The amount of memory in a laptop determines how many applications and programs it can run simultaneously and how fast they will run.
3. The standard amount of memory in a laptop is 4GB, but most laptops in 2023 come with at least 8GB or more.
4. Recommendations
   • If you plan to use your laptop for demanding tasks such as gaming or video editing, a laptop with 16GB or more of memory is recommended.
   • If you’re using your laptop for general purposes such as browsing the web and running basic applications, 8GB of memory should be sufficient.
   • Look for a laptop with high-speed DDR4 or DDR5 memory, as this will provide the best performance. Never opt for a DDR3 ram laptop as they are outdated and too slow for modern tasks.
   • RAM speed is measured in Megahertz (MHz), millions of cycles per second. Always opt for a RAM speed exceeding 3200MHz.

Storage

• Storage refers to the permanent storage of data and files on a laptop.
• There are two main types of storage: Hard Disk Drive (HDD) and Solid State Drive (SSD).
• Hard Disk Drives (HDD) are the traditional type of storage, offering large storage capacity at a lower cost. However, they are slower and less reliable compared to SSDs.
• Solid State Drives (SSD) are faster and more reliable compared to HDDs, but are more expensive and offer less storage capacity.
• SSDs are 3 types mainly
  • SATA SSD – Excellent choice for replacing older HDD in old Laptops or Desktops
  • M.2 SSD – This comes in many sizes
  • PCI-based Nvme SSD – Latest and fastest – Opt for PCI 3.0 or 4.0
• Recommendations
  • If you’re using your laptop for demanding tasks such as gaming or video editing, a laptop with a PCI-based Nvme SSD with a large capacity is recommended.
  • If you’re using your laptop for general purposes such as browsing the web and running basic applications, then also a laptop with PCI-based Nvme SSD SSD is recommended but you can opt for a smaller SSD over larger SSDs.
  • Some laptops also offer the option of having both an SSD and an HDD, which can provide the best of both worlds in terms of storage capacity and speed. But they tend to be much bulkier and outdated for 2023 standards. Dual SSD-slotted laptops are a better fit because of the recent drop in the cost of SSDs. Always opt for PCI 3.0 or PCI 4.0-based Nvme SSD.
  • Always avoid EMMC storage as they are nothing but glorified SD cards soldered onto the motherboard

Display

• The display is the screen of a laptop and is an important factor to consider when choosing a laptop.
• Look for a laptop with a high-resolution display, as this will provide a clear and crisp image.
• Consider the screen size of the laptop, as larger screens can provide a better viewing experience but also make the laptop larger and heavier.
• Look for a laptop with a high refresh rate, as this will provide a smoother visual experience, especially for demanding tasks such as gaming.
• Touchscreen displays are becoming more common and can provide a more interactive user experience, but also add to the cost of the laptop.
• Consider the type of display, as there are different types of displays such as LCD, LED, OLED, and others. Each type of display has its own advantages and disadvantages.
• Brightness is another important factor to consider when choosing a laptop display. A brighter display is important for outdoor use or bright environments.
• SRGB (Standard Red Green Blue) is a colour gamut that is used as a reference for colour reproduction in digital imaging and display technologies. A laptop display with 100% SRGB coverage is ideal for graphic design or video editing, as it provides accurate colour representation.
• Adobe RGB (Adobe RGB 1998) is a colour space that offers a wider colour gamut compared to SRGB, providing more accurate colour representation for professional photographers and graphic designers.
• If colour accuracy is important for your work or needs, look for a laptop display with 100% SRGB or Adobe RGB coverage.
• Keep in mind that laptops with high-colour gamut displays tend to be more expensive, but provide a better visual experience for demanding tasks.
• The display is an important factor to consider when choosing a laptop, so it’s important to find a display that fits your needs and preferences.
• Recommendations
  • Never opt for a laptop below FullHD resolution even for an entry-level price point
  • If you want a portable and compact laptop – screen sizes below 14 inches are recommended
  • If the purpose is gaming and professional works like photoshop or video editing then a larger display with 2k or higher resolution is recommended
  • Don’t go for a display that is below 250 nits brightness
  • Don’t opt for a display that is not at least 100% SRGB
  • Mini-LEDs and OLEDs are better than LCDs or LEDs if you have the budget
  • If the use case is gaming and Multimedia then choose at least OLED laptops

Graphic Card

• A graphics card, also known as a GPU (Graphics Processing Unit), is responsible for rendering and displaying images on your laptop.
• Integrated graphics cards are built into the laptop’s processor and are sufficient for basic tasks such as web browsing, word processing, and video playback.
• Dedicated graphics cards, on the other hand, are separate from the processor and are designed for demanding tasks such as gaming, video editing, and graphic design. These cards offer a higher level of performance and provide better graphics and video quality.
• When it comes to dedicated graphics cards, the most popular graphics card manufacturers include NVIDIA and AMD but these days Intel has also started venturing into this business.
• Recommendations
  • Choose a dedicated graphics card only if you want to play heavy games, and do video editing or graphic design.
  • For every other use case invest the money saved in graphics cards in other aspects like build quality, RAM, processor….etc
  • Laptops with graphics cards tend to be bulkier, have lower battery backup and are expensive.

Additional Features

There are several additional features to consider when choosing a laptop, which can enhance your experience and performance.

• Ports: Consider the number and types of ports available on the laptop, as you may need certain ports for external devices such as a mouse, keyboard, or external hard drive.
• Battery life: Look for a laptop with long battery life, especially if you plan to use your laptop on the go.
• Weight: Consider the weight of the laptop, especially if you plan to use your laptop on the go. Lighter laptops are more convenient to carry around, but also tend to be more expensive.
• Build quality: Look for a laptop with great build quality, as it will last longer and provide a better overall experience. Metal-framed laptops last longer than plastic ones.
• Brand reputation: Consider the reputation of the brand and its customer support, as this can impact the overall quality and experience of the laptop.
• Operating system: Consider the operating system of the laptop, as this will impact the software and apps you can run on the laptop. Windows laptop tends to be slightly more expensive than Linux-based laptops due to licensing cost but Windows is ubiquitous and unavoidable due to the versatility of the software compatibility.
• Price: Consider the price of the laptop, as this will impact the overall value and performance of the laptop.

Keep in mind that these additional features can impact the overall performance, experience, and cost of the laptop, so it’s important to find a balance that fits your needs and budget.

In conclusion, choosing the right laptop can be a daunting task, but it’s important to make an informed decision that fits your needs and budget. By considering factors such as your needs, processor, memory, storage, display, and additional features, you can find a laptop that will provide the best overall performance and experience for your needs.

Remember to prioritize your needs and consider factors such as the type of work or tasks you will be performing, the environment you will be using the laptop in, and your budget. With the right combination of these factors, you can find a laptop that will provide you with a great user experience and meet your needs for years to come.